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Integrated circuit
- Basic IC types
- Basic semiconductor design
- Designing ICs
- Fabricating ICs
- Building layers
- Deposition
- Building layers
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Liquid 14 – Integrated shortcuts for common daily tasks (was Liquid Flow). October 23, 2017 With Liquid (was Liquid Flow), you flow through your work effortlessly and quickly by doing the things you need to do every way – looking up words, sharing information, translating, copying, calculating and converting. Who should practice asset management? Asset management is a scalable approach that can be used by systems of any size. Whether running a small drinking water system serving 50 customers or drinking water and wastewater systems of the largest cities, asset management means putting in place a long-term plan to sustain these systems and the services they provide.
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Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.
Christopher SaintSee All ContributorsManager, IBM West Coast Design Center, Auburn, California. Coauthor of IC Layout Basics and IC Mask Design.
Alternative Titles: IC, chip, chip circuit, electronic-grade silicon, microchip, microcircuit, microelectronic circuit
Integrated circuit (IC), also called microelectronic circuit, microchip, or chip, an assembly of electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon). The resulting circuit is thus a small monolithic “chip,” which may be as small as a few square centimetres or only a few square millimetres. The individual circuit components are generally microscopic in size.
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Integrated circuits have their origin in the invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley and his team at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company’sBell Laboratories. Shockley’s team (including John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain) found that, under the right circumstances, electrons would form a barrier at the surface of certain crystals, and they learned to control the flow of electricity through the crystal by manipulating this barrier. Controlling electron flow through a crystal allowed the team to create a device that could perform certain electrical operations, such as signal amplification, that were previously done by vacuum tubes. They named this device a transistor, from a combination of the words transfer and resistor. The study of methods of creating electronic devices using solid materials became known as solid-state electronics. Solid-state devices proved to be much sturdier, easier to work with, more reliable, much smaller, and less expensive than vacuum tubes. Using the same principles and materials, engineers soon learned to create other electrical components, such as resistors and capacitors. Now that electrical devices could be made so small, the largest part of a circuit was the awkward wiring between the devices.
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In 1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments, Inc., and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation independently thought of a way to reduce circuit size further. They laid very thin paths of metal (usually aluminum or copper) directly on the same piece of material as their devices. These small paths acted as wires. With this technique an entire circuit could be “integrated” on a single piece of solid material and an integrated circuit (IC) thus created. ICs can contain hundreds of thousands of individual transistors on a single piece of material the size of a pea. Working with that many vacuum tubes would have been unrealistically awkward and expensive. The invention of the integrated circuit made technologies of the Information Age feasible. ICs are now used extensively in all walks of life, from cars to toasters to amusement park rides.
Basic IC types
Analog versus digital circuits
Analog, or linear, circuits typically use only a few components and are thus some of the simplest types of ICs. Generally, analog circuits are connected to devices that collect signals from the environment or send signals back to the environment. For example, a microphone converts fluctuating vocal sounds into an electrical signal of varying voltage. An analog circuit then modifies the signal in some useful way—such as amplifying it or filtering it of undesirable noise. Sticky notifications v1 0 4. Such a signal might then be fed back to a loudspeaker, which would reproduce the tones originally picked up by the microphone. Another typical use for an analog circuit is to control some device in response to continual changes in the environment. For example, a temperature sensor sends a varying signal to a thermostat, which can be programmed to turn an air conditioner, heater, or oven on and off once the signal has reached a certain value.
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A digital circuit, on the other hand, is designed to accept only voltages of specific given values. A circuit that uses only two states is known as a binary circuit. Circuit design with binary quantities, “on” and “off” representing 1 and 0 (i.e., true and false), uses the logic of Boolean algebra. (Arithmetic is also performed in the binary number system employing Boolean algebra.) These basic elements are combined in the design of ICs for digital computers and associated devices to perform the desired functions.
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Although there are numerous types of magnetic flowmeters available for measuring liquid flow rates, all of them function according to the fundamental principles of Faraday’s law, which dictates the relationship between a moving conductor and the voltage it creates within a magnetic field. But despite their similarities, some magnetic flowmeters are better suited to specific tasks than others, making flowmeter selection and proper application important concerns in a fluid measurement project. Issues of cost, accuracy, reliability, and ease of use are some of the significant factors involved in choosing a flowmeter.
In terms of application, the metallurgical properties of the fluid conduit and the measuring apparatus can greatly influence measurement effectiveness. In addition, a fluid’s velocity profile and the flowmeter system’s capacity for handling flow disturbances or other interference often determine the type of device that would be most appropriate for a given application. In order to ensure reliable performance over an expected period of operation and volume of moving fluid, flowmeter scale—both in size and velocity limits—should be taken into careful account.
Size and Capacity Factors
The physical characteristics of an electromagnetic flowmeter, particularly its size, affect its processing abilities and the velocity range that it can effectively handle. The majority of magnetic flowmeters have a meter size of between approximately 0.6 to 7.9 inches (15 to 200 millimeters) and a velocity range between .98 and 32.8 feet per second (0.3 to 10 meters per second). The larger a flowmeter’s size and the higher its velocity capacity, the greater the flow rate it can measure. Some magnetic flowmeters can provide measurements of velocities below the standard range, but the accuracy decreases to some degree. Likewise, having flowmeters handle velocities higher than roughly 16 feet per second (5 meters per second) increases the risk of pipe deterioration and damage.
Magnetic flowmeters can be highly effective for applications involving corrosive conditions and for measuring the flow rate of corrosive materials, such as abrasives or slurries. They are also commonly employed in measuring paper stock or pulp, as well as low flow rates and pipe networks with relatively short inside diameters. Many magnetic flowmeters improve their performance by switching between two different range capacities, allowing them to reset their characteristics according to changes in the operating conditions.
Piping System Design
Circular configurations are fairly common in piping systems because they offer a comparatively simple construction design. Magnetic flowmeters are more easily applied to a circular arrangement than to rectangular pipe networks, and usually offer more effective measurements. While fluid velocity is usually unaffected by the pipe symmetry in this sort of network, the circular shape can sometimes distort the magnetic field, creating a need for recalibration. In straight piping situations, the upstream and downstream requirements are often different for each type of flowmeter. In most cases, the straight section of a pipe needs to be a specific distance from the electrodes and the flowmeter face in both upstream and downstream flow. The magnetic coils can also be arranged in a flowmeter to reduce piping effects through magnetic field distribution.
Hazardous Environments
Magnetic flow meters can be used to measure flow rates for combustible or explosive liquids, often under hazardous conditions. Explosion-resistant flowmeter housings are vital for these projects, and the design specifications and safety parameters for the housings are usually regulated by presiding authorities. Remote electronic controls may be used to increase flowmeter reliability in hazardous circumstances, and integrated controls are also available. Some magnetic flowmeters are equipped with a dividing housing that separates field wiring from electronic circuitry. A backlit LCD interface can help improve operator use.
Advantages and Disadvantages
There are numerous benefits to using electromagnetic flowmeters to perform fluid flow measurements. They are generally non-invasive and have no moving parts, reducing the risk of breakdowns and the frequency of repairs. A decrease in flowmeter pressure is also usually no greater than that of an equivalent pipe length, reducing the piping costs. Some of the other major advantages provided by magnetic flowmeters include:
- Power usage is relatively low, with electrical power requirements as low as 15 watts for some models.
- They are mechanically obstructionless and can be equipped with abrasion-resistant liners, making them effective for measuring slurries and other erosive fluids.
- They are capable of dealing with most kinds of acids and bases, as well as water and water-based solutions, due to lining materials that are both insulators and have corrosion resistance.
- Relatively small amounts of electrode metals are needed for magnetic flowmeters.
- They can measure both very low flows and very high volume flow rates, with a minimum diameter of roughly 0.125 inches and a maximum volume of up to 10 cubic feet.
- They can usually measure multidirectional flow, either upstream or downstream.
Liquid Flow 10 – Integrated Shortcuts For Common Daily Tasks Crossword Puzzle
Despite these advantages, magnetic flowmeters also present certain difficulties for flow rate measurement. These flowmeters are only effective on conductive fluids, and materials such as unmixed hydrocarbons and gases cannot be measured. However, magnetic materials themselves may also present problems, as hydrodynamic effects can alter the normal flow pattern and disturb the velocity rate enough to interfere with operations. Depending on their size and capacity, magnetic flowmeters can be relatively heavy, and those with higher corrosion and abrasion resistance can be expensive.
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